As we begin a new Adult Faith Formation series, we turn to the Thomistic approach to ethics and morality. Following a book by Fr Basil Cole, op (Angelic Vices and Demonic Virtues), we look to St Thomas' practical advice for growing in virtue and overcoming vice.
Handout is below.
Listen online [here]!
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Thomistic Ethics
St Thomas’s Practical Advice for Growing in Holiness
Session 1, Introduction to Thomistic Ethics
For I do not do the good I want, but the evil I do not want
is what I do. (Romans 7:19)
I. Course Outline
January 20 - Introduction to Thomistic Ethics, The Hope of Heaven
January 27 - Virtue and Vice, and the Seven Capital Sins
February 3 - Virtues to overcome the Vices
February 10 - The Spiritual Life, the Virtues, and the Gifts of the Holy Spirit
II. Eudaimonistic Ethics
An insight going back to Aristotle, Eudaimonistic Ethics is a system of morality based on the practice of virtue centered on achieving human flourishing and true happiness. Rather than focusing primarily on laws or legal precepts, or even emphasizing the role of the conscience, eudaimonistic ethics asks the questions: What will make man happy? In what does happiness consist? And, in the case of particular ethical questions, Does this habit or act contribute to human flourishing and man’s happiness?
In relation to faith based ethics, we recognize that a eudaimonistic approach will focus more on the joy that is gained in heaven and the means of attaining this eternal happiness, than on the pains of hell awaiting those who die in mortal sin. While the fear of hell is a great motivator to avoid sin, the hope of heaven is far greater still in inspiring virtue. Again, we recognize that the laws of the Church are not just rules, they are guide posts to lead us to true happiness and eternal life.
III. Outline of St Thomas’ Ethics in the Summa
A. General Morals, Prima Secundae - The First Part of the Second Part
Man’s Lase End: Happiness
Human Acts: The will, and goodness and evil of human acts
Passions: Concupiscible and Irascible
Habits: Virtues and Vices, and Gifts of the Holy Spirit, Vice and Sin
The Law: Eternal Law, Natural Law, Human Law, The Old and New Laws
Grace, and Merit
B. Specific Morals - Secunda Secudae - The Second Part of the Second Part
Faith
Hope
Charity
Prudence
Justice: Commutative and distributive justice, religion, piety, reverence
Fortitude
Temperance: Abstinence and Chastity
Particular Charisms: special graces and religious life
IV. What is happiness? St Thomas’ answer
In wealth? In honor? In fame or glory? In power? In any good of the body? In pleasure? In any good of the soul? In any created good?
We realize that true happiness cannot even be a good of the soul, insofar as the human soul is still finite - and though happiness is enjoyed in and by the soul, yet that which causes happiness must be above the soul.
Because man is open to the infinite and capax Dei (capable of union with God), it is only in beatific union with God that man can find true happiness. This is the beatific vision, the joy of heaven.
V. Heaven, ultimate bliss. Hell, ultimate failure.
In order to have a right path in our way of living, we must know where we are going - just as, in any journey, the last in the order of completion is the first in the order of intention (we need to know our final destination in order to take our first step). Man was made for heaven, and this is the guiding principle of all our action.
Hell, on the other hand, is ultimate failure. These are the two options: Forever, or for never. “Just think! ‘Tis God who came down to you, who took on your own nature, who spoke your language, healed your wounds, raised your dead to life. ‘Tis God who died for you on a cross. And shall you still be permitted to blaspheme and mock, to enjoy to the full your voluptuousness? No. Deceive not yourselves: love is not a farce. It is God’s love which punishes, God’s crucified love. It is not justice that is without mercy it is love. Love is life or death. And if that love is God’s love, then love is either eternal life or eternal death.” (Fr Garrigou-Lagrange, referencing Fr Lacordaire)
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Another talk on the virtues according to St Thomas can be found [here] -- from a conference where Father spoke in Habits and Holiness.
Habits and Holiness
How the Virtues and the Gifts of the Holy Spirit Lead Man to Happiness
I. What is Happiness? The first question of moral theology, to which the answer is virtue.
What is the first question of moral theology? Is it “What is Law” or “What is the Conscience” or “What Does God Command?” or “What are the norms of society?”
St Alphonsus, doctor of moral theology and great saint, begins his treatise of moral theology with the question of conscience; and law in second place. He is very modern in this, and probably takes an approach which is reacting to the great evils of modern times – perhaps this makes him easier for us to understand.
However, St Thomas Aquinas, following the pagan Aristotle, begins with a very different question. In fact, he doesn’t treat of “law” until nearly the very end of his work on general moral theology; and he has no “treatise” on the conscience at all! (certainly, he discusses the place of the conscience, and the conscience is very important to him – but there is no place where the question of the conscience is isolated and addressed in itself).
Rather, St Thomas begins moral theology with the question: What is happiness? What is it that will truly make man happy? Everything in his moral theology is focused on this – how does man attain to the happy/blessed life, both here upon earth and one day in heaven?
Reminds me of the Baltimore Catechism: Why did God make you? God made me to know him, to love him, and to serve him in this life and *to be happy* with him in the next. The Baltimore Catechism places the whole of the Christian life (and also Christian doctrine) in reference to human happiness – especially the perfect happiness which man is called to enjoy in union with God forever in heaven.
And happiness is not simply a sort of reward superadded and an extrinsic prize for having lived a good life – happiness is the union with God which is the virtuous life, rather the life of grace!
St Thomas (following Aristotle) discusses the question: In what does happiness consist? Can it be in wealth? No, because money is for buying other things, and also wealth is so easily lost. Further, gaining wealth or other material possessions increases anxieties.
Can it be in honor or fame or glory? No, because honor is given on account of something else (some virtue or good thing in the person, which his better than the honor given). Also fame and glory is so passing – men praise and men blame, and it changes so often.
Happiness cannot be in power, because power greatly increases anxiety, as we seek to consolidate and retain that power!
Happiness cannot be in pleasures of the body, for these ultimately exhaust us and leave us feeling empty. Nor even in higher pleasures of the intellect or of the soul, because even these can only be enjoyed for so long. Further, intelligence (which is a great good) is often lost in old age – but happiness is something which cannot be lost or taken away.
Happiness can only consist in the enjoyment of the supreme Good – who is God himself. And this enjoyment of God, this relation with God is gained through the life of Grace, by which the Trinity dwells within us and we begin to live the divine life even here on earth. Grace is the seed of eternal life, the beginning of heaven on earth!
What is virtue? St Augustine, “A good habit consonant with our nature.” Or, “a stable disposition by which a man performs good works easily and well.”
A virtue is a reality existing within our soul (within the powers of the soul- especially within the intellect or the will), which disposes us to perform deeds in accord with reason – and to do these works, with ease and excellence. Thus, a virtue is something stable which is not easily lost – and which provides a level of peace in the soul.
When thinking of virtue, it may be helpful to consider the various types of men: Some are vicious, others are incontinent, others continent, and some virtuous. The vicious man is filled with vice and easily performs wicked deeds with enjoyment. The incontinent man wants to be good, but often falls to wicked deeds after a struggle, because he still delights in sin. The continent man is good and wants to be good, he does not often fall to sin, but he is tempted to sin and feels some attraction to sin – he does good but with some difficulty. The truly virtuous man however is good and does good, and is not attached to sin or attracted to evil (consider that the just man commits venial sins, but these are not deliberated sins nor does he have an attachment to them nor does he take delight in them).
Where do virtues reside in the soul?
Some are in the intellect, others in the will. And these perfect the intellect and the will, which are the two superior powers of the soul. Further, there are virtues which perfect the lower powers of the soul as well. We will focus on the intellectual and moral virtues.
The distinction between intellectual and moral virtues is not always so absolute – for example, prudence is essentially an intellectual virtue but is often considered as a moral virtue since it is so closely tied to moral acts.
The supreme intellectual virtue is wisdom (others are science and art); while justice is supreme among the moral virtues. The moral virtues are more excellent insofar as they actually make a man to both be good and do good – these are justice, fortitude and temperance, as well as prudence.
We speak also of the cardinal virtues – “cardinal” means “hinge”. These four cardinal virtues hold all the others virtues together: Prudence, justice, fortitude, temperance. Other virtues are tied to these – for example, religion, piety, gratitude, liberality, and affability are tied to justice. Abstinence, sobriety, and chastity are tied to temperance. Etc.
Additionally, we have the theological virtues of faith, hope and love – these are infused into man by God, while the other virtues we have been discussing are acquired through repeated works. It is also true that there are infused virtues of prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance – but these are truly new virtues, distinct from the acquired virtues (tho they have the same name). These infused virtues are given by God and are directed toward supernatural ends.
A few points about virtues:
The virtue is the mean between two extremes. In the middle between the vices which are either a deficiency or an excess – but the distance between the virtue and each of the two vices is as great/greater than the distance between the vices themselves. Its not like a straight line from 1 to 10 with the virtue being 5. Rather, more like a triangle, where the middle is above the two extremes.
Fortitude is between cowardice (the deficiency) and rashness (the excess).
However, the theological virtues, because they are directed toward God himself, do not have a mean – there is no “excess” of faith, hope and love.
Also, note that the mean of virtue is relative to circumstances – temperance looks very different on Good Friday than on Easter Sunday. But this isn’t relativism.
Additionally, the virtues are connected to one another. Most especially, as we already noted, there are certain virtues which are guided/ruled by other virtues. Additionally, when one virtue grows, all the vritues grow with it. The classic example is how the fingers of a hand all grow together in proportion – so also the virtues.
Happily, vices do not work this way – tho there are vices which are tied to each other, many vices war against each other (gluttony is quiet opposed to vanity). This does help
But what about the Gifts of the Holy Spirit? How do these relate to the virtues?
The Gifts are quasi-habits. They are in us, but are not under our control the way that virtues are. Consider the example of a boat, ores, and sails.
The Gifts of the Holy Spirit – Wisdom, Understanding, Knowledge, Counsel, Piety, Fortitude, Fear of the Lord. Describe each gift.
St Thomas goes further and unites the gifts with the theological and cardinal virtues, then with the beatitudes, and finally with the petitions of the Our Father!
Example: faith corresponds to wisdom which corresponds to “blessed are the clean of heart, they shall see God”.
The virtues don’t just make us to do good, they make us to be good.
The Gifts go further and give us a quasi experiential knowledge of God – which is what allows us to move into the higher realms of mental prayer and even contemplation.