We discuss the Popes from the great St Gregory VII through just before the Western Schism (Urban IV). From 1073 to 1389. We then consider a bit of the history of the College of Cardinals and Papal Conclaves, and especially the current rules of how a new Pope is elected.
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The History of the Popes
The Good, the Bad, and the Phony
Session 5, The Popes of the late Middle Ages
You are Peter, and upon this Rock I will build my Church. (Matthew 16:18)
I. Course Outline
January 28th -- Introduction to the Papacy, Papal Elections, the First Popes
February 4th -- Popes under the time of persecution
February 11th – Popes of the early Middle Ages
February 18th -- Popes in the Holy Roman Empire
February 25th -- Popes in the late Middle Ages
[post Easter: The Western Schism, The Early Modern Period, Recent Days]
IV. The Popes in the late Middle Ages
From Gueranger, The Liturgical Year:
“The end of the 10th, and the commencement of the 11th, Century, was a period that brought upon the Church of Christ one of the severest trials she has ever endured. The two great scourges of Persecution and Heresy had subsided; they were followed by that of Barbarism. The impulse given to civilization by Charlemagne was checked early in the 9th Century; the Barbarian element had been but suppressed, and broke out again with renewed violence. Faith was still vigorous among the people, but, of itself, it could not triumph over the depravity of morals. The Feudal system had produced anarchy throughout the whole of Europe; anarchy created social disorder, and this, in its turn, occasioned the triumph of might and licentiousness over right. Kings and Princes were no longer kept in check by the power of the Church; for, Rome herself being a prey to factions, unworthy or unfit men were but too frequently raised to the Papal Throne.
“The 11th Century came; its years were rapidly advancing; and there seemed no remedy for the disorders it had inherited. Bishoprics had fallen a prey to the secular power, which set them up for sale, and the first requisite for a candidate to a Prelacy was that he should be a vassal subservient to the Ruler of the nation, ready to supply him with means for prosecuting war. The Bishops being thus, for the most part, simoniacal, as St. Peter Damian tells us they were—what could be expected from the inferior Clergy but scandals? The climax of these miseries was that ignorance increased with each generation, and threatened to obliterate the very notion of duty. There was an end to both Church and society, had it not been for the promise of Christ that he would never abandon his own Work.
“In order to remedy these evils, in order to dispel all this mist of ignorance, Rome was to be raised from her state of degradation. She needed a holy and energetic Pontiff, whose consciousness of having God on his side would make him heedless of opposition and difficulties; a Pontiff whose reign should be long enough to make his influences felt, and encourage his successors to continue the work of reform. This was the mission of St. Gregory the Seventh.”
St Gregory VII: Pope from 1073-1085. The great Hildebrand! Had been a papal advisor for many years and then, as pope, continued some of the most important reforms of the Middle Ages. The “Gregorian Reforms” established celibacy among the clergy, abolished simony, and fought against lay investiture (ensuring that bishops would be chosen by the Pope and not by powerful lords or lay rulers). He is one of the most important figures for the growth of the Church and Ecclesiastical life in the Middle Ages - and brought about the reforms that would allow the Church to flourish in the 1200s! He was born the son of a blacksmith and given the name Hildebrand. He studied in Rome under the future Pope Gregory VI (the same Gregory VI who “bought” the papacy from Benedict IX!), and later may have become a Benedictine monk at Cluny Abbey. In 1049, he became advisor to Pope Leo IX; then, also to the next two popes Victor II and Stephen IX. He continued to have influence under Pope Nicholas II, and was the main influencer in the election of Pope Alexander II whom he served as head advisor. Finally, after around 25 years of significant influence in the Church and having advised five popes, Hildebrand was himself elected Pope and took the name Gregory VII. In order to accomplish his reforms, Gregory was forced to make many enemies - he even excommunicated the Emperor four different times. Ultimately, though his reforms would prove to be wonderfully successful, Gregory VII died in exile - “I have loved righteousness and hated iniquity, therefore I die in exile.” “Vicar of Christ, an exile thou canst never be, for to thee God has given the Gentiles for an inheritance, and the uttermost ends of the earth for thy possession.” Feast, May 25th. #157
Innocent III: Pope from 1198-1216. He was only 37 years old when elected, making him one of the younger popes. He convened and guided the Fourth Lateran Council, which is one of the most important of the Middle Ages. He approved of the Fransiscan Order after having a dream of St Francis holding up the Lateran Basilica. Interestingly, he and Pope Gregory IX (d. 1241) are depicted in marble relief on the doors of the US House of Representatives because of the influence had on American Law. Dying suddenly on 16 July 1216, he appeared to St Lutgardis in Belgium to ask for prayers as he was in purgatory. Although not a saint, he is one of the great popes. #178
Interregnum period 2 yrs 276 days. 1268-1271. This was due to a deadlock among the cardinals in voting for the next Pope.
Note about the longest interregni: This is the longest. Then 2 years 136 days, ending in 1417 with the election of Martin V and the end of the Western Schism. Then 2 years 92 days and 2 years 79 days, see below. The longest period without a Pope in the past 250 years is between Pius VI in 1799 (died in prison during time of Napoleon, at that time the longest reigning Pope with 24 years 6 months and 15 days; now he is #5) and Pius VII in 1800, which was 197 days. In the past 195 years, every Papal Election has occurred in less than three weeks, with most (75%) taking between 15 and 20 days.
Blessed Gregory X: Pope from 1271-1276. Called the Second Council of Lyons which regulated papal conclaves and elections until the 20th Century. He was only a deacon when elected, and was away on a crusade in the Holy Land. Elected Pope after a very difficult conclave on 1 September 1271, he was not ordained a priest until six months later on 19 March 1272 and a bishop (and therefore, Pope) on 27 March 1272. Below, we will consider papal elections in more detail. Feast, January 10th. #184
Bl Innocent V: Pope in 1276. He is the first Dominican to be elected Pope, and the first Pope to be elected by a true papal conclave (established by the Second Council of Lyons and Bl Gregory X). Retained the white habit/cassock as Pope - the custom of the Pope wearing white had already been established, Bl Gregory X mentions it. Feast, June 22nd. #185
Interregnum, 2 yrs 92 days, 1292-1294. This was due to a deadlock among the cardinals in voting for the next Pope.
St (Peter) Celestine V: Pope in 1294. He was elected Pope after an extended interregnum. Although he was a very holy individual, he was a pretty terrible Pope and abdicated freely. For obvious reasons, Pope Benedict XVI had strong devotion to St Peter Celestine, visiting his tomb and praying there. St Peter Celestine would be the last pope to voluntarily resign untilB Benedict XVI in 2013. Feast, May 19th. #192
Boniface VIII: Pope from 1294-1303. Sometimes criticized because of the way Pope St Peter Celestine abdicated and how the former Pope was treated. Also criticized by Dante for dealings with Florence. He called the first Jubilee. He issued the document Unam Sanctam with the famous “no salvation outside the Church” as well as defense of papal supremacy. He was actually a very good Pope, and was found incorrupt when his tomb was opened 300 years after his death! #193
Clement V: Pope from 1305-1314. He was Pope at the start of the Avignon Papacy, when the popes no longer lived in Rome but rather in France and were somewhat controlled by the French nobles and bishops. This Avignon Papacy would last almost 70 years, from 1309-1377. A total of seven Popes lived in Avignon. #195
Interregnum, 2yrs 79 days, 1314-1316. This was due to a deadlock among the cardinals in voting for the next Pope.
John XXII: Pope from 1316-1334. He took the wrong stance in a controversy over whether the saints enjoyed the beatific vision before the final resurrection. This controversy shows that popes can even be wrong on theological points - but they are infallible. #196
Gregory XI: Pope from 1370-1378. Encouraged by St Catherine of Siena, he returned the papacy to Rome. #201
Urban VI: Pope from 1378-1389. He is the last non-cardinal to have been elected pope. As there was much unrest following the return of the Papacy to Rome from Avignon, the Western Schism began after his death. #202
V. How Papal Conclaves Work and the Rules About Cardinals
[from La Croix International]
When the cardinals enter conclave to the chant of Veni Creator Spiritus, the world seems to hold its breath. Which of these men dressed in red will appear on the balcony of St. Peter’s Basilica, now dressed in white? Who will be the next man tasked with guiding the Catholic Church?
What is a conclave? What is its origin?
During the first millennium, the method of choosing the pope underwent several changes, progressively limiting the electoral body. In 1179, Pope Alexander III defined the College of Cardinals as we know it today: only cardinals are eligible to vote for the election of a new pope.
Less than a century later, in 1268, cardinals were convened to find a successor to Clement IV. Gathered in the town of Viterbo, the 19 electors delayed the decision. Frustrated, in 1270 the locals locked the churchmen in a room with a key, or cum clave in Latin. Thus, the conclave was born. To further pressure the cardinals, the faithful subjected them to a bread and water diet and removed the roof of the building.
Gregory X was finally elected in 1271 and found the method effective, so in 1274 he established the conclave as the process for papal elections. Over the next eight centuries, the conclave would see only minor changes, the most significant coming from Paul VI in 1970. He restricted the voting body to cardinals under 80 years old and theoretically limited the number of electors to 120.
Who can be elected pope?
According to church law, it is not necessary to be a cardinal to be elected pope. One must simply be a baptized adult male. However, the last non-cardinal elected was in 1378, when Bartolomeo Prignano ascended to the papal throne as Urban VI. His election was ultimately unfortunate, as his death triggered the Western Schism.
How does the election of the pope take place?
The conclave begins 15 to 20 days after the pope’s death or resignation, primarily to allow all cardinals time to arrive in Rome. In the days preceding the conclave, the gathered cardinals—from all over the world—meet daily.
The cardinals then gather in the splendid Sistine Chapel at the Vatican. During the election period, all those involved, including those assisting, take an oath not to reveal anything about the voting or attempt any outside communication. Thus, only the election's final result is known, not the details. A chimney signals the voting results: white smoke signifies a successful election, black smoke means another vote.
The handwritten ballots are secret. On the first day of the conclave, the cardinals immediately vote, followed by a second vote if no pope is elected. In the following days, they vote up to four times per day, twice in the morning and twice in the afternoon. During the election, the electors reside within the Vatican walls.
What was the shortest conclave?
A candidate must secure at least two-thirds of the votes to be elected. The most recent conclaves have quickly produced a new pope. For instance, in 2005, Benedict XVI was elected on the second day after just four ballots. You would have to go back to 1922 for a conclave lasting more than four days, with the election of Pius XI after five days and 14 ballots. The cardinals needed less than 24 hours and just three ballots to elect his successor, Pius XII, making the 1939 conclave the shortest in history. On the eve of World War II, the cardinals likely wanted to avoid leaving the faithful in uncertainty.
What was the longest conclave?
While the election of Gregory X in 1271 was the longest in history—resulting in a three-year vacancy of the Apostolic See—the longest modern conclave took place in 1740. Beginning on February 18, it did not conclude until August 17, with the election of Benedict XIV. It took six months for the approximately 50 cardinals (with the number fluctuating due to late arrivals and the death of electors) to agree on a name. This conclave was particularly lengthy due to the “right of exclusion,” which allowed monarchs to veto a cardinal’s election. This practice is now strictly prohibited.
