In this class, we discuss the books which are not part of the Bible but yet were very important to the Jews and early Christians - and had major influence on the New Testament.
We also consider what criteria could be used to determine which books are part of the Bible - and ultimately, we recognize that the Church gives us the Bible.
Listen online [here]
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The Books of Maccabees
Session 6: How Got the Old Testament
Course Outline
October 14th, Session 1 - Introduction and Outline, History of the Maccabees
October 21st, Session 2 - The First Book of Maccabees
October 28th, Session 3 - The Second Book of Maccabees
November 4th, Session 4 - The Prophecy of Daniel, Maccabees and the Messiah
November 11th, Session 5 - The Third and Fourth Books of Maccabees, and others
November 18th, Session 6 - How We Got the Old Testament
November 25th, Session 7 - Saints and Theology in the Books of Maccabees
I. Review of the Catholic Canon Compared to the Protestant Canon
Deuterocanonical books: These are books accepted by the Catholic Church as part of Sacred Scripture, but which were more debated in the early Church. They are part of the Canon of the Bible, but considered the “Second Canon” - not as less valuable or less inspired, but as only universally accepted at a slightly later time.
These are: Tobit, Judith, Baruch, Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), 1 and 2 Maccabees, Wisdom, and the greek parts of Esther and Daniel.
We can also speak of the Deuterocanonical books of the New Testament: Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and Revelation.
Apocryphal books: These are books which were important to the Jewish faithful in the century before the coming of Jesus, and which were also widely respected by both the Jews and the Christians in the 1st Century AD.
The list is extensive, but the Council of Trent included the following books as being of special value: 1 and 2 Esdras, Psalm 151, Prayer of Manasseh, and the Letter to the Laodiceans.
Other books which are respected in the Eastern Orthodox Churches include: 3 and 4 Maccabees (with 3 Maccabees often included in the Canon).
Finally, there are other books which were significant in the century before and after Christ: The Book of Enoch, the Book of the Assumption of Moses, and others. And even these had significant influence on the New Testament writers.
II. More apocryphal books of importance
(which we didn’t have time to discuss last week)
1 Esdras, retells the story of Israel’s return from Babylonian exile, emphasizing the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem and the restoration of proper worship under the leadership of Zerubbabel and Ezra. This book was in the Septuagint (called Esdras A).
2 Esdras, also known as Latin Ezra or 4 Ezra, explores profound questions about suffering, divine justice, and the end times through a series of visionary dialogues between the prophet Ezra and God’s messengers.
Psalm 151, a short psalm attributed to David that reflects on his humble beginnings as a shepherd and his anointing by God to become king of Israel. This psalm was included (unnumbered) in many versions of the Septuagint; and it is accepted by the Orthodox as canonical.
Prayer of Manasseh, a brief but powerful penitential work attributed to King Manasseh of Judah, who, according to tradition, repented after a life of sin and idolatry. In the prayer, Manasseh acknowledges his wrongdoing, confesses his guilt, and humbly pleads for God’s mercy and forgiveness. [Manasseh was son of King Hezekiah (who was a good and holy king), but turned to sin and idolatry. After being captured and exiled by the Assyrians, Manasseh repented and received God’s forgiveness. 2 Kings 21]
The Letter to the Laodiceans, a short epistle that appears in some early Christian writings but is considered apocryphal and not part of the canonical New Testament. It is often mentioned in connection with Colossians 4:16, where Paul instructs the Colossians to read a letter from Laodicea and for the Laodiceans to read his letter. The text that survives under this title is believed by scholars to be a later forgery, summarizing or adapting passages from other Pauline letters rather than being an original work of Paul. Its themes generally echo Paul’s usual exhortations - encouraging faithfulness, humility, and love - but it lacks the historical authenticity and authority of his recognized epistles.
The First Letter of St Clement: An early Christian epistle traditionally attributed to Pope Clement I of Rome, written around the end of the 1st century (c. 95–97 AD). It was addressed to the Christian community in Corinth to address a dispute in which some members had deposed their leaders, urging them to restore order and humility.
Shepherd of Hermas, an early Christian allegorical work in which Hermas receives visions and parables from a heavenly figure called the Shepherd, emphasizing repentance, moral living, and the restoration of the Church.
Epistle of Barnabas and Didache are other examples.
III. The Book of Enoch and the Book of the Assumption of Moses
Examples of other books which were influential on the Jews around the time of Jesus, and also extremely influential on the Apostles and writers of the New Testament.
The Book of Enoch
Jude directly quotes a prophecy from 1 Enoch in verses 14 and 15:
In Jude 1:14-15, there is a quote attributed to "Enoch, the seventh from Adam" prophesying about the Lord's coming judgment. This quote is identified as being from 1 Enoch 1:9.
Some scholars suggest other possible allusions to 1 Enoch in the New Testament. For instance, the discussion of fallen angels imprisoned in "Tartarus" in 2 Peter may have parallels in 1 Enoch. Jesus' statement in the Gospels about angels in heaven not marrying (Matthew 22:30; Mark 12:25; Luke 20:35-36) has also been linked to a passage in 1 Enoch. The book of Hebrews refers to Enoch being taken up by God (Hebrews 11:5), which aligns with the account in Genesis.
The Book of Enoch, also called 1 Enoch, is an ancient Jewish apocalyptic text attributed to Enoch, the great-grandfather of Noah. It is a collection of writings composed between the 3rd century BC and the 1st century AD, containing visions, parables, and revelations about the heavenly realm, the fate of the wicked, and the final judgment. A central theme of the book is the story of the Watchers, angels who descended to earth, took human wives, and taught forbidden knowledge, resulting in widespread corruption and the birth of the Nephilim. Enoch is portrayed as a righteous man chosen by God to intercede for humanity and reveal divine secrets, including the workings of the cosmos, the calendar, and the coming messianic kingdom.
The Book of Enoch is divided into several sections, including the Book of the Watchers, the Book of Parables, the Astronomical Book, the Book of Dream Visions, and the Epistle of Enoch. Throughout these sections, it emphasizes God’s justice, the inevitability of divine judgment, and the ultimate triumph of the righteous. It also presents vivid descriptions of heaven, hell, and the cosmic order, influencing later Jewish and Christian apocalyptic thought. Although it is not part of the canonical Bible for most traditions, except the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, the Book of Enoch had a profound impact on early Jewish mysticism and early Christian theology, particularly in shaping ideas about angels, demons, and the final judgment.
The Testament of Moses, or the Book of the Assumption of Moses.
This book is referenced in Jude 1:9, “But Michael the archangel, when contending with the devil he disputed about the body of Moses, durst not bring against him a railing judgment, but said, 'The Lord rebuke thee.”
The Book of the Assumption of Moses, also known as the Testament of Moses, is an ancient Jewish work that recounts Moses’ final days and his prophetic farewell to the Israelites before they enter the Promised Land. The text combines elements of prophecy, moral exhortation, and apocalyptic vision, emphasizing Israel’s obedience to God, the consequences of sin, and the coming judgment. Moses is depicted as a faithful servant who passes on his wisdom and instructions, warning the people about future leaders, apostasy, and persecution. Although much of the original text has been lost and survives only in fragments, it provides valuable insight into Jewish thought during the Second Temple period and highlights themes of divine justice, fidelity, and the enduring covenant between God and His people.
IV. Does the New Testament Use the Septuagint or Quote the Deuterocanonical Books?
A. Being written in Greek, the New Testament mostly quotes from the Septuagint translation when citing the Old Testament - though, there are plenty of times that the New Testament author seems to provide his own translation from the accepted Hebrew text, or even make a translation from an unknown Hebrew version.
Even well respected Protestant scholars will admit that the New Testament cites the Septuagint about 340 times, and chooses the Hebrew over the Septuagint in only 33 places.
V. Criteria for determining whether a book really is part of the Bible
A. Was the book in the Septuagint?
The seven deuterocanonical books of the Catholic Old Testament were in the Septuagint, and therefore were widely accepted by the Jews and early Christians. However, this criterion is complicated because there are some books in the Septuagint which the Catholic Church does not consider canonical - for example, 3 Maccabees is in some editions of the Septuagint (though not all); and 1 Esdras was part of all the best editions of the Septuagint.
B. Does the New Testament quote the book or refer to the book as important?
One problem with this criterion is that there are Old Testament books which are never cited or referred to in the New Testament (for example, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Zephaniah, Nahum, Ezra, Nehemiah, Obediah, and Esther), and yet we all admit that these books are part of the Old Testament.
On the other hand, there are books quoted in the New Testament even as prophecy or as true history, which are clearly not to be considered canonical (most notably, the Book of Enoch [Jude 1:14-15] and the book of the Assumption of Moses [Jude 1:9]). Also, remember that the Old Testament very frequently refers to other books as important and worth reading - books which were not accepted as part of the Scriptures and which have been lost.
However, it is still helpful to note that the New Testament does refer to a number of the deuterocanonical books - Sirach 28:2 “Forgive your neighbor's injustice, then when you pray your own sins will be forgiven” and Matthew 6:14-15 “If you forgive others their transgressions, your heavenly Father will forgive you.”
Tobit 4:15 “See thou never do to another what thou woudst hate to have done to thee by another” and Matthew 7:12 “Do to others whatever you would have them do to you.”
Wisdom 7:26 “for she [wisdom] is the refulgence of eternal light, the spotless mirror of the power of God, the image of his goodness.” and Hebrews 1:3 “He [the Son] is the refulgence of his glory, the very imprint of his being.”
Wisdom 9:13 “For what man knows God’s counsel, or who can conceive what the Lord intends?” and Romans 11:34 “For who has known the mind of the Lord or who has been his counselor?”
And there are many many besides these.
C. Was the book read in the Sacred Liturgy?
This is one of the surer tests. In fact, what seems to have been the most important criterion in the early Church for determining the canonical status of a book was whether that book was accepted as Scripture by the Churches established by the Apostles and which had remained in union with Rome. The communities which had ties to the Apostles themselves and in which the bishops were in union with the Pope and other bishops of the world seem to have had a special grace to discern which books were truly inspired as part of the Bible - and they used these books in the Sacred Liturgy.
Therefore, in a real sense, the canon of the Bible actually comes from the Liturgy of the Church - at least, it is revealed through the readings which the Churches used in the Sacred Liturgy. If a book was used by all or most of the Apostolic Churches in the Mass (or in other Liturgical rites) as part of Scripture, then that book was considered to be part of the Bible.
D. Ultimately, the Church had to decide under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit who guided the Pope and the bishops.
It is important to realize that there was not an “Old Testament” or a “Hebrew Bible” at the time of Jesus. Rather, there was still much debate among the Jewish people about which books were truly part of Scripture – however, if anything, the Greek Septuagint was certainly the most widely accepted “Jewish Bible” (and it included the seven deuterocanonical books of the Catholic Bible).
However, the Jewish rabbis called the “Council of Jamnia” in 90 AD and at this time established the more limited Hebrew Bible (excluding the extra books of the Septuagint). Many believe that this action was taken as a way to set themselves apart from Christian Jews, and also to remove certain interpretations of the Septuagint which pointed more clearly to Jesus as the Messiah.
While there was real debate among the Church Fathers over the deuterocanonical books of the Old Testament (and even over some of the books of the New Testament), the Council of Rome (in 382) established the Canon of Scripture which we know today. This was reaffirmed by the Council of Hippo (393) and of Carthage (397). Though the matter was not entirely settled until the ecumenical Council of Florence in 1442 (and again at Trent in 1546), the Catholic Canon was not seriously doubted until Martin Luther (about 1517).
